洪杰文,许琳惠

• 1:武汉大学媒体发展研究中心
• 2:武汉大学新闻与传播学院

摘要(Abstract)：

综合国外相关文献可看出,社交机器人通过模仿人类行为、促进信息扩散、与人类用户交互,使自己看起来像一个"真人",但其在账号标准特征、发布内容和情感表达上与人类用户仍存在差异。此外,社交机器人对虚假新闻传播、在线网络讨论及公众认知都产生着影响。基于此,论文提出未来的三个研究取向:一是将其对虚假新闻传播影响的研究扩至信息传播;二是开展其操纵在线讨论网络的机制研究;三是丰富其对人类用户影响的研究。

关键词(KeyWords)： 社交网络;社交机器人;虚假新闻传播;操纵讨论;公众认知

Abstract:

Keywords:

基金项目(Foundation): “中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金”资助专项“新闻传播的人工智能时代：算法新闻中的人机关系研究”（项目批准号：2020AI008）研究成果;; 教育部人文社会科学重点研究基地重大项目“新媒体环境下中国媒体新闻传播创新研究”（项目批准号：16JJD860003）的阶段性研究成果

作者(Author): 洪杰文,许琳惠

DOI: 10.16602/j.gjms.20210031

参考文献(References)：

• 张洪忠、段泽宁、韩秀(2019):异类还是共生：社交媒体中的社交机器人研究路径探讨，《新闻界》,第2期，10-17页。
• 张洪忠、赵蓓、石韦颖(2020):社交机器人在Twitter参与中美贸易谈判议题的行为分析，《新闻界》,第2期，46-59页。
• Abokhodair,N.,Yoo,D.& McDonald,D.W.(2015).Dissecting a social botnet:Growth,content and influence in Twitter.In Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing (pp.839-851).Vancouver,BC,Canada:ACM.doi:10.1145/2675133.2675208.
• Abulaish,M.& Fazil,M.(2020).Social bots:Impacts,threat-dimensions,and defense challenges.IEEE Technology and Society Magazine,39(3),52-61.doi:10.1109/MTS.2020.3012327.
• Aiello,L.M.,Deplano,M.,Schifanella,R.& Ruffo,G.(2012).People are strange when you're a stranger:Impact and influence of bots on social networks.In Proceedings of the Sixth AAAI International Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (pp.10-17).Dublin:AAAI.
• Allem,J.P.,Escobedo,P.& Dharmapuri,L.(2020).Cannabis surveillance with Twitter data:Emerging topics and social bots.American Journal of Public Health,110(3),357-362.doi:10.2105/AJPH.2019.305461.
• Allem,J.P.,Ferrara,E.,Uppu,S.P.,Cruz,T.B.& Unger,J.B.(2017).E-cigarette surveillance with social media data:Social bots,emerging topics,and trends.JMIR Public Health and Surveillance,3(4),e98.doi:10.2196/publichealth.8641.
• Al-Rawi,A.& Shukla,V.(2020).Bots as active news promoters:A digital analysis of Covid-19 Tweets.Information,11(10),461.doi:10.3390/info11100461.
• Badawy,A.,Addawood,A.,Lerman,K.& Ferrara,E.(2019).Characterizing the 2016 Russian IRA influence campaign.Social Network Analysis and Mining,9(1),31.doi:10.1007/s13278-019-0578-6.
• Badawy,A.,Ferrara,E.& Lerman,K.(2018).Analyzing the digital traces of political manipulation:The 2016 Russian interference Twitter campaign.In 2018 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (pp.258-265).Barcelona,Spain:IEEE.doi:10.1109/ASONAM.2018.8508646.
• Bastos,M.& Mercea,D.(2018).The public accountability of social platforms:Lessons from a study on bots and trolls in the Brexit campaign.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:Mathematical,Physical and Engineering Sciences,376(2128),20180003.doi:10.1098/rsta.2018.0003.
• Bessi,A.& Ferrara,E.(2016).Social bots distort the 2016 U.S.presidential election online discussion.First Monday,21(11-7).doi:10.5210/fm.v21i11.7090.Retrieved from https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/7090/5653.
• Boshmaf,Y.,Muslukhov,I.,Beznosov,K.& Ripeanu,M.(2011).The social bot network:When bots socialize for fame and money.In Proceedings of the 27th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference (pp.93-102).Orlando,Florida,USA:ACM.doi:10.1145/2076732.2076746.
• Boshmaf,Y.,Muslukhov,I.,Beznosov,K.& Ripeanu,M.(2013).Design and analysis of a social botnet.Computer Networks,57(2),556-578.doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2012.06.006.
• Broniatowski,D.A.,Jamison,A.M.,Qi,S.H.,AlKulaib,L.,Chen,T.,Benton,A.,Quinn,S.C.& Dredze,M.(2018).Weaponized health communication:Twitter bots and Russian trolls amplify the vaccine debate.American Journal of Public Health,108(10),1378-1384.doi:10.2105/AJPH.2018.304567.
• Cheng,C.,Luo,Y.& Yu,C.B.(2020).Dynamic mechanism of social bots interfering with public opinion in network.Physica A:Statistical Mechanics and its Applications,551,124163.doi:10.1016/j.physa.2020.124163.
• Cho,C.H.,Martens,M.L.,Kim,H.& Rodrigue,M.(2011).Astroturfing global warming:It isn't always greener on the other side of the fence.Journal of Business Ethics,104(4),571-587.doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0950-6.
• Chu,Z.,Gianvecchio,S.,Wang,H.N.& Jajodia,S.(2012).Detecting automation of twitter accounts:Are you a human,bot,or cyborg?.IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing,9(6),811-824.doi:10.1109/TDSC.2012.75.
• Clark,E.M.,Williams,J.R.,Jones,C.A.,Galbraith,R.A.,Danforth,C.M.& Dodds,P.S.(2016).Sifting robotic from organic text:A natural language approach for detecting automation on Twitter.Journal of Computational Science,16,1-7.doi:10.1016/j.jocs.2015.11.002.
• Cossu,J.V.,Labatut,V.& Dugué,N.(2016).A review of features for the discrimination of twitter users:Application to the prediction of offline influence.Social Network Analysis and Mining,6(1),25.doi:10.1007/s13278-016-0329-x.
• Cresci,S.,Lillo,F.,Regoli,D.,Tardelli,S.& Tesconi,M.(2019).Cashtag piggybacking:Uncovering spam and bot activity in stock microblogs on Twitter.ACM Transactions on the Web,13(2),11.doi:10.1145/3313184.
• Danisch,M.,Dugué,N.& Perez,A.(2014).On the importance of considering social capitalism when measuring influence on Twitter.In 2014 International Conference on Behavioral,Economic,and Socio-Cultural Computing (pp.1-7).Shanghai:IEEE.doi:10.1109/BESC.2014.7059501.
• Dickerson,J.P.,Kagan,V.& Subrahmanian,V.S.(2014).Using sentiment to detect bots on twitter:Are humans more opinionated than bots?.In 2014 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (pp.620-627).Beijing:IEEE.doi:10.1109/ASONAM.2014.6921650.
• Fan,R.,Talavera,O.& Tran,V.(2020).Social media bots and stock markets.European Financial Management,26(3),753-777.doi:10.1111/eufm.12245.
• Fernquist,J.,Kaati,L.& Schroeder,R.(2018).Political bots and the Swedish general election.In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics(pp.124-129).Miami,FL,USA:IEEE.doi:10.1109/ISI.2018.8587347.
• Ferrara,E.& Yang,Z.Y.(2015).Measuring emotional contagion in social media.PLoS ONE,10(11),e0142390.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142390.
• Ferrara,E.(2018).Measuring social spam and the effect of bots on information diffusion in social media.In Lehmann,S.& Ahn,Y.Y.(Eds.),Complex Spreading Phenomena in Social Systems (pp.229-255).Cham,Switzerland:Springer.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77332-2_13.
• Ferrara,E.,Cresci,S.& Luceri,L.(2020).Misinformation,manipulation,and abuse on social media in the era of COVID-19.Journal of Computational Social Science,3(2),271-277.doi:10.1007/s42001-020-00094-5.
• Ferrara,E.,Varol,O.,Davis,C.,Menczer,F.& Flammini,A.(2016).The rise of social bots.Communications of the ACM,59(7),96-104.doi:10.1145/2818717.
• Freitas,C.,Benevenuto,F.,Ghosh,S.& Veloso,A.(2015).Reverse engineering socialbot infiltration strategies in twitter.In 2015 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (pp.25-32).Paris,France:IEEE.doi:10.1145/2808797.2809292.
• Gilani,Z.,Farahbakhsh,R.,Tyson,G.& Crowcroft,J.(2019).A large-scale behavioural analysis of bots and humans on twitter.ACM Transactions on the Web,13(1),7.doi:10.1145/3298789.
• Hagen,L.,Neely,S.,Keller,T.E.,Scharf,R.& Vasquez,F.E.(2020).Rise of the machines?Examining the influence of social bots on a political discussion network.Social Science Computer Review,0894439320908190.doi:10.1177/0894439320908190.
• Howard,P.N.(2005).New media campaigns and the managed citizen.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
• Howard,P.N.,Kollanyi,B.,Bradshaw,S.& Neudert,L.M.(2018).Social media,news and political information during the US election:Was polarizing content concentrated in swing states?.arXiv,1802.03573.
• Hwang,T.,Pearce,I.& Nanis,M.(2012).Socialbots:Voices from the fronts.Interactions,19(2),38-45.doi:10.1145/2090150.2090161.
• Jones,M.O.(2019).Propaganda,fake news,and fake trends:The weaponization of twitter bots in the gulf crisis.International Journal of Communication,13,1389-1415.
• Keller,T.R.& Klinger,U.(2019).Social bots in election campaigns:Theoretical,empirical,and methodological implications.Political Communication,36(1),171-189.doi:10.1080/10584609.2018.1526238.
• Kitzie,V.L.,Mohammadi,E.& Karami,A.(2018).“Life never matters in the DEMOCRATS MIND”:Examining strategies of retweeted social bots during a mass shooting event.Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology,55(1),254-263.doi:10.1002/pra2.2018.14505501028.
• Kollanyi,B.,Howard,P.N.& Woolley,S.C.(2016).Bots and automation over Twitter during the first U.S.Presidential debate.Data Memo.Oxford,UK:Project on Computational Propaganda.
• Ku?en,E.& Strembeck,M.(2020).You talkin'to me?Exploring human/bot communication patterns during riot events.Information Processing & Management,57(1),102126.doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2019.102126.
• Lazer,D.M.J.,Baum,M.A.,Benkler,Y.,Berinsky,A.J.,Greenhill,K.M.,Menczer,F.,Metzger,M.J.,Nyhan,B.,Pennycook,G.,Rothschild,D.,Schudson,M.,Sloman,S.A.,Sunstein,C.R.,Thorson,E.A.,Watts,D.J.,& Zittrain,J.L.(2018).The science of fake news.Science,359(6380),1094-1096.doi:10.1126/science.aao2998.
• Lee,K.,Eoff,B.D.& Caverlee,J.(2011).Seven months with the devils:A long-term study of content polluters on twitter.In Proceedings of the Fifth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media.Barcelona,Catalonia,Spain:AAAI.
• Luceri,L.,Deb,A.,Badawy,A.& Ferrara,E.(2019).Red bots do it better:Comparative analysis of social bot partisan behavior.In Companion Proceedings of the 2019 World Wide Web Conference (pp.1007-1012).San Francisco,USA:ACM.doi:10.1145/3308560.3316735.
• Maréchal,N.(2016).When bots tweet:Toward a normative framework for bots on social networking sites.International Journal of Communication,10(10):5022-5031.doi:index.php/ijoc/article/view/6180.
• Matook,S.,Brown,S.A.& Rolf,J.(2015).Forming an intention to act on recommendations given via online social networks.European Journal of Information Systems,24(1),76-92.doi:10.1057/ejis.2013.28.
• M?nsted,B.,Sapie■ski,P.,Ferrara,E.& Lehmann,S.(2017).Evidence of complex contagion of information in social media:An experiment using Twitter bots.PLoS ONE,12(9),e0184148.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184148.
• Morales,J.S.(2020).Perceived popularity and online political dissent:Evidence from Twitter in Venezuela.The International Journal of Press/Politics,25(1),5-27.doi:10.1177/1940161219872942.
• Morstatter,F.,Carley,K.M.& Liu,H.(2016).Botdetection in social media:Networks,behavior,and evaluation.Retrieved from https://isi.edu/～fredmors/bottutorial/Tutorial.pdf.
• Murthy,D.,Powell,A.B.,Tinati,R.,Anstead,N.,Carr,L.,Halford,S.J.& Weal,M.(2016).Bots and political influence:A sociotechnical investigation of social network capital.International Journal of Communication,10,4952-4971.
• Nilsen,L.G.,Hafstad,G.S.,Staksrud,E.& Dyb,G.(2018).Five reasons for using social media among young terror survivors:Results from the Ut?ya study.Computers in Human Behavior,84,285-294.doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.006.
• Persily,N.(2017).The 2016 USelection:Can democracy survive the internet?.Journal of Democracy,28(2),63-76.doi:10.1353/jod.2017.0025.
• Pozzana,I.& Ferrara,E.(2020).Measuring bot and human behavioral dynamics.Frontiers in Physics,8,125.doi:10.3389/fphy.2020.00125.
• Reeves,B.& Nass,C.I.(1996).The media equation:How people treat computers,television,and new media like real people and places.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
• Rofrío,D.,Ruiz,A.,Sosebee,E.,Raza,Q.,Bashir,A.,Crandall,J.& Sandoval,R.(2019).Presidential elections inecuador:Bot presence in twitter.In 2019 Sixth International Conference on eDemocracy & eGovernment (pp.218-223).Quito,Ecuador:IEEE.doi:10.1109/ICEDEG.2019.8734426.
• Ross,B.,Pilz,L.,Cabrera,B.,Brachten,F.,Neubaum,G.& Stieglitz,S.(2019).Are social bots a real threat?An agent-based model of the spiral of silence to analyse the impact of manipulative actors in social networks.European Journal of Information Systems,28(4),394-412.doi:10.1080/0960085X.2018.1560920.
• Salge,C.A.D.L.& Karahanna,E.(2018).Protesting corruption on Twitter:Is it a bot or is it a person?.Academy of Management Discoveries,4(1),32-49.doi:10.5465/amd.2015.0121.
• Sch?fer,F.,Evert,S.& Heinrich,P.(2017).Japan's 2014 general election:Political bots,right-wing internet activism,and Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's Hidden Nationalist Agenda.Big Data,5(4),294-309.doi:10.1089/big.2017.0049.
• Schuchard,R.,Crooks,A.,Stefanidis,A.& Croitoru,A.(2018).Bots in nets:Empirical comparative analysis of bot evidence in social networks.In International Conference on Complex Networks and their Applications (pp.424-436).Cambridge,United Kingdom:Springer.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05414-4_34.
• Shao,C.C.,Ciampaglia,G.L.,Varol,O.,Yang,K.C.,Flammini,A.& Menczer,F.(2018a).The spread of low-credibility content by social bots.Nature Communications,9(1),4787.doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06930-7.
• Shao,C.C.,Hui,P.M.,Wang,L.,Jiang,X.W.,Flammini,A.,Menczer,F.& Ciampaglia,G.L.(2018b).Anatomy of an online misinformation network.PLoS ONE,13(4),e0196087.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196087.
• Shao,C.,Ciampaglia,G.L.,Varol,O.,Flammini,A.,& Menczer,F.(2017).The spread of fake news by social bots.arXiv,1707.07592,96,104.
• Shi,W.,Liu,D.Y.,Yang,J.,Zhang,J.,Wen,S.M.& Su,J.(2020).Social bots' sentiment engagement in health emergencies:A topic-based analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic discussions on twitter.International Journal of Environ-mental Research and Public Health,17(22),8701.doi:10.3390/ijerph17228701.
• Smith,C.(February 5,2020).400 amazing twitter statistics and facts.Retrieved from https://expandedramblings.com/index.php/twitter-stats-facts/#.VCdgtaiSzI0.
• Stella,M.,Ferrara,E.& De Domenico,M.(2018).Bots increase exposure to negative and inflammatory content in online social systems.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,115(49),12435-12440.doi:10.1073/pnas.1803470115.
• Stieglitz,S.,Brachten,F.,Berthelé,D.,Schlaus,M.,Venetopoulou,C.& Veutgen,D.(2017).Do social bots (still) act different to humans?-Comparing metrics of social bots with those of humans.In International Conference on Social Computing and Social Media (pp.379-395).Vancouver,Canada:Springer.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58559-8_30.
• The Web Ecology Project.(2011).The 2011 socialbots competition.Retrieved from http://www.webecologyproject.org/category/competition.
• Varol,O.,Ferrara,E.,Davis,C.A.,Menczer,F.& Flammini,A.(2017).Online human-bot interactions:Detection,estimation,and characterization.In Proceedings of the 11th International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (pp.280-289).Montreal:AAAI.
• Verkamp,J.P.& Gupta,M.(2013).Five incidents,one theme:Twitter spam as a weapon to drown voices of protest.In 3rd USENIX Workshop on Free and Open Communications on the Internet.Washington.
• Vosoughi,S.,Roy,D.& Aral,S.(2018).The spread of true and false news online.Science,359(6380),1146-1151.doi:10.1126/science.aap9559.
• Walsh,D.(August 1,2018).How do online bots shift opinions?Retrieved from https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/how-do-online-bots-shift-opinions.
• Wojcik,S.,Messing,S.,Smith,A.,et al.(April 9,2018).Bots in the Twittersphere.Pew Research Center.Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/04/09/bots-in-the-twittersphere/.
• Woolley,S.C.& Howard,P.N.(2016).Social media,revolution,and the rise of the political bot.In Routledge Handbook of Media,Conflict and Security (pp.302-312).New York:Routledge.
• Yang,K.C.,Hui,P.M.& Menczer,F.(2019).Bot electioneering volume:Visualizing social bot activity during elections.In Companion Proceedings of the 2019 World Wide Web Conference (pp.214-217).San Francisco,USA:ACM.doi:10.1145/3308560.3316499.
• Yuan,X.,Schuchard,R.J.,& Crooks,A.T.(2019).Examining emergent communities and social bots within the polarized online vaccination debate in Twitter.Social media + society,5(3):2056305119865465.doi:10.1177/2056305119865465.
• Zannettou,S.,Caulfield,T.,De Cristofaro,E.,Sirivianos,M.,Stringhini,G.& Blackburn,J.(2019).Disinformation warfare:Understanding state-sponsored trolls on Twitter and their influence on the web.In Companion Proceedings of the 2019 World Wide Web Conference (pp.218-226).San Francisco,USA:ACM.doi:10.1145/3308560.3316495.
• Zerback,T.,T?pfl,F.& Kn?pfle,M.(2021).The disconcerting potential of online disinformation:Persuasive effects of astroturfing comments and three strategies for inoculation against them.New Media & Society,23(5),1080-1098.doi:10.1177/1461444820908530.
• ① 恶意僵尸网络机器人(malicious botnets),意指支持远程操控的机器人网络；调研机器人(research bots),可爬取网络空间中的数据和信息；编辑机器人(editing bots),如维基百科所采用的机器人算法等；聊天机器人(chat bots),可对用户的基础请求予以回应。